In China, the transformation from a centrally planned economy to one dominated by market forces has been characterized by the devolution of authority from the center to localities. This is as true of the enormous state bureaucracy associated with the control of fertility as it is with the economic bureaucracies more often studied in transitional societies. Using observations from several field sites, the authors document how county-, township-and village-level family planning cadres have gone from being agents of the state to (...) autonomous actors who must negotiate between the ongoing demands of the central bureaucracy and the new opportunities available in the locales in which they work and dwell. They suggest that any serious change in the draconian restrictions on fertility that have obtained in China for almost thirty years is likely to derive from initiatives at the local level. Local actors have already begun to adjust to the tensions between responsibilities and available resources that have tended to induce paralysis in the upper levels of this long-standing state bureaucracy. (shrink)

words compose a significant part of speech. Despite this, learning them is complicated. Abstract concepts collect more heterogeneous exemplars and are more detached from sensory modalities than concrete concepts. Recent views propose that, because of their complexity, other people are pivotal for abstract concepts’ acquisition and use, e.g., to explain their meaning. We tested this hypothesis using a combined behavioral and thermal imaging paradigm. Twenty-one Italian children determined whether acoustic stimuli were or not correct Italian words. Concrete terms yielded faster (...) responses than abstract ones: for the first time, this effect appears with response times in very young children. More crucially, the higher increase in temperature of the nasal tip suggests that, with abstract concepts, children might be more socially and cognitively engaged. (shrink)

A treatise on rhetorical tropes is attributed in manuscripts to the first-century grammarian Trypho: this article considers for the first time a fifteenth-century manuscript of this work (Leiden, BPG 74G), which turns out to be the only complete witness of its hitherto unknown original version; this version (very fragmentarily transmitted by a fifth-century papyrus scrap) is also partly found in another fifteenth-century manuscript now kept in Olomouc (M 79). Four interesting poetic fragments are quoted in this newly discovered, fuller version (...) of Ps.-Trypho'sDe Tropis: some lines from Callimachus’ fifth and fourthIambi(23–9 and 90–2 respectively: a radically new light is shed by this new witness on the parallel papyrus fragments carrying Callimachus’ text), an epigram dubiously attributed to Simonides (FGE44 Page, probably to be dated to the Hellenistic period: the text can be now restored to its complete form), and some enigmatic lines of “Hesiod”'sWedding of Keyx, which the new witness finally makes fully understandable. (shrink)

The current COVID-19 pandemic and the previous SARS/MERS outbreaks of 2003 and 2012 have resulted in a series of major global public health crises. We argue that in the interest of developing effective and safe vaccines and drugs and to better understand coronaviruses and associated disease mechenisms it is necessary to integrate the large and exponentially growing body of heterogeneous coronavirus data. Ontologies play an important role in standard-based knowledge and data representation, integration, sharing, and analysis. Accordingly, we initiated the (...) development of the community-based Coronavirus Infectious Disease Ontology in early 2020. -/- As an Open Biomedical Ontology (OBO) library ontology, CIDO is open source and interoperable with other existing OBO ontologies. CIDO is aligned with the Basic Formal Ontology and Viral Infectious Disease Ontology. CIDO has imported terms from over 30 OBO ontologies. For example, CIDO imports all SARS-CoV-2 protein terms from the Protein Ontology, COVID-19-related phenotype terms from the Human Phenotype Ontology, and over 100 COVID-19 terms for vaccines (both authorized and in clinical trial) from the Vaccine Ontology. CIDO systematically represents variants of SARS-CoV-2 viruses and over 300 amino acid substitutions therein, along with over 300 diagnostic kits and methods. CIDO also describes hundreds of host-coronavirus protein-protein interactions (PPIs) and the drugs that target proteins in these PPIs. CIDO has been used to model COVID-19 related phenomena in areas such as epidemiology. The scope of CIDO was evaluated by visual analysis supported by a summarization network method. CIDO has been used in various applications such as term standardization, inference, natural language processing (NLP) and clinical data integration. We have applied the amino acid variant knowledge present in CIDO to analyze differences between SARS-CoV-2 Delta and Omicron variants. CIDO's integrative host-coronavirus PPIs and drug-target knowledge has also been used to support drug repurposing for COVID-19 treatment. -/- CIDO represents entities and relations in the domain of coronavirus diseases with a special focus on COVID-19. It supports shared knowledge representation, data and metadata standardization and integration, and has been used in a range of applications. (shrink)

Respublica literaria, eller de lärdes republik, är ett begrepp som framför allt förknippas med de nya former för vetenskaplig kommunikation och lärda nätverk som introducerades vid slutet av 1600-talet och som sedan kom att spela en betydelsefull roll i 1700-talets intellektuella värld. Denna tänkta gemenskap av lärda är central för vår förståelse av den tidigmoderna epokens idé-, kultur- och vetenskapshistoria. Lärdomsrepubliken var ett ideal för de lärdas verksamhet, ett slags kunskapsproducerandets utopi, där den ideala kommunikationen präglades av jämlikhet, rationalitet och (...) filosofisk frihet, ofta i tydlig och uttalad kontrast mot en mer krass verklighet där de lärdas gemenskap tvärtom byggdes på en grundval av politiska, ideologiska, ekonomiska och religiösa intressen. I Lärda samtal behandlas vitt skilda aspekter av begreppet respublica literaria, dess kommunikation och dess materialitet: det handlar om den lärda republikens statsskick, de lärdas institutioner och praktiker, seder och bruk, uppfostran genom samtal, kvinnors och barns plats i republiken, och mycket mer. Boken är en festskrift till Erland Sellberg, professor i idéhistoria vid Stockholms universitet. (shrink)

Modernizmle birlikte Batı'nın değişen insan, dünya, evren ve Tanrı algısı, şüphesiz Batı ile sınırlı kalmamış, hemen hemen bütün dünyayı etkilemiştir. Maddeye şekil verme hünerini ileri derecede geliştiren ve bunu kullanarak dünyanın geri kalan önemli bir kısmını ya bizzat veya nüfuz alanı oluşturarak egemenliği altına alan ve dünya coğrafyasında önemli değişiklikler meydana getiren Batı'nın bu faaliyetleri, ondan etkilenen diğer kültürlerin kendi din, ahlak, gelenek ve adetlerinden şüphe etmesine sebep olmuştur. Batı'nın üzerimizdeki askeri faaliyetlerinin ve belki Batı'ya olan coğrafi yakınlığımızın, bu etkinin (...) bizde daha fazla hissedilmesinin kaynağı olduğu söylenebilir. Bu çerçevede, fikir dünyamızda son yüzyılda seyreden bir hareketlilikten ve buna bağlı olarak meydana gelen önemli değişikliklerden söz etmek mümkündür. Kendi kültür, ahlak, din, örf, adet, gelenek, kısacası medeniyet anlayışımızı, yeni paradigmaya uydurma gayreti, aydınlarımızın çoğunun seçtiği yol olmuştur. Bununla birlikte Batı'dan teknolojinin, teknolojiyi oluşturan bilginin ve bilgi yönteminin alınmasının şart olduğunu, ancak kadim kültürün korunması gerektiğini savunan aydınlarımız da az değildir. İşte bunlardan biri de son yüzyılda, kültürümüz ve kültürümüzü meydana getiren bilgi dallarıyla ilgili birçok eser kaleme almış olan Ömer Nasuhi Bilmen'dir. Bir toplumu, diğerlerinden ayıran en önemli faktörlerden biri de etik kurallar konusundaki tercihlerdir. Bilmen, belki de bunu fark ettiği için, etik konusuna çok fazla önem vermiş, bu konudaki değişime karşı çıkmış ve kadim ahlak sisteminin korunması gerektiğini var gücüyle savunmuştur. Bu kitap ise, Bilmen'in bu konudaki düşüncelerini ele almakta ve irdelemektedir. (shrink)

Sosyal varlıklar olan insanlar, tarih boyunca birbirleri ile alışveriş yapma ihtiyacı hissetmişlerdir. Bu alışverişler, genellikle satış akdi yoluyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Satış akitlerinin kurulmasında en yaygın görülen yöntem ise pazarlık usulü ile gerçekleştirilen müsâveme yöntemidir. İnsanlar satış akdini kurarken, akdin unsurları üzerinde pazarlık yaparak bir anlaşmaya varmışlardır. İslâm hukuku bu yöntemin sınırlarını belirlemiştir. İnsanların birbirlerinin haklarını ihlal etmeden pazarlık yapabilmelerini sağlayacak düzenlemeler getirmiştir. Ayrıntıları başta örf olmak üzere farklı delillerle düzenlense de, insanların satış akdini kurarken bu sınırlara dikkat etmesi gerektiği, doğrudan doğruya (...) naslar ile emredilmiştir. Bu durum hem şahsi zararların hem de toplumsal zararların önüne geçilmesi açısından büyük önem arz etmiştir. Bu kapsamda getirilen bazı sınırlamalar şu şekildedir: Satılmış olan bir malın devredilmeden bir başkasına satılmaması, fiyat yükseltmek amacıyla üçüncü kişinin pazarlığına dahil olunmaması gerektiği ve tarafların pazarlık aşamasının sonu geldiği, anlaşma meyillerinin oluştuğu durumda üçüncü kişinin pazarlığa dahil olmaması gerektiği belirtilmiştir. Bu sınırlamalardan, tarafların anlaşma meyillerinin ortaya çıkmış olduğu durumda üçüncü kişinin taraflardan birinin aleyhine pazarlığa dahil olması konusu çalışmamızda ele alınmıştır. Bu husus İslâm hukuk literatüründe sevm ale’s-sevm olarak nitelendirilmiştir. Türkçe literatürde genellikle pazarlık üzerine pazarlık olarak çevrilmiştir. Çalışmada sevm ale’s-sevm kavramına genellikle yer verilmiş olmakla birlikte, Türkçe olarak ifade edilmesi gerektiğinde pazarlık üzerine pazarlık kavramı kullanılmıştır. Taraflar pazarlığa yönelik ifadelerini akdin kurucu unsuru olan irade beyanı ile birbirlerine iletmektedirler. Dolayısıyla bu çalışmada öncelikle irade beyanına yönelik açıklamalar yapılmıştır. Pazarlığa yönelik bu irade beyanlarının icâb niteliğinde mi yoksa icâba davet niteliğinde mi olduğu hususunda açıklamalara yer verilmiştir. Bu açıklamaların ardından müsâveme yöntemi tanımlanmış ve genel olarak bu yönteme ilişkin bilgi verilmiştir. Müsâveme yöntemi ile oluşturulan akitler ile bu yönteme benzer yöntemlerin farkları hususunda açıklamalar yapılmıştır. Pazarlık yapılırken dikkat edilmesi gereken hususlara değinilmiş ve pazarlık üzerine pazarlık yapmanın yasak olduğu ifade edilmiştir. Akit kurulurken hangi aşamada pazarlığa dahil olmanın bu yasak kapsamında sayılacağı ve hangi aşamadaki müdahalenin yasak kapsamına dahil olmayacağı belirtilmiştir. Bu yasağın neden gerekli olduğu konusunda yapılmış olan açıklamalara yer verilmiştir. Sevm ale’s-sevmin söz konusu olduğu akitlerin genel olarak diyaneten haram kabul edildiği bununla birlikte kazaen bu akitlerin geçerli olduğu ifade edilmiştir. Bu yasağın kapsamına sadece müslümanların değil aynı zamanda müslüman olmayan vatandaşların ve müste’menlerin de dahil olduğu ifade edilmiştir. Buna göre müslüman olmayan bir vatandaş veya müste’men aleyhine böyle bir pazarlığa dahil olmanın hukuka uygun kabul edilmeyeceği açıklanmıştır. Sevm ale’s-sevmin yalnızca satış akdi açısından değil, aynı zamanda kıyas yoluyla diğer akitler bakımından da geçerli olacağı belirtilmiştir. Bu açıklamalarda Hanefî mezhebinin görüşü esas alınmış olmakla birlikte diğer mezheplerin görüşlerine de yer verilmiştir. Makale genel itibariyle Hanefî mezhebi odağında diğer mezheplerin görüşlerine de yer verilen bir yöntemle oluşturulmuştur. Tüm bu görüşlerin ardından mer’î hukukta bu yasağın uygulanıp uygulanmadığı hususunda açıklamalar yapılmıştır. (shrink)

Respirer! Invisible poème Pur échange perpétuel de l'être qui m'est propre Contre l'espace du monde Dans lequelmoi-même rythmiquement j'adviens...Vague unique dont je suis la mer successive Rainer maria Rilke, Sonnets à Orphée Ou comment l'ergothérapeute peut mettre en forme une dysharmonie rythmique dans un espace transitionnel faisant office de tenant-lieu chez un patient schizophrène dont l'immuabilité de sa vie quotidienne viendrait en contrepoint de son chaos psychique. Le rythme n'est - Psychanalyse et psychothérapie – Nouvel article.

La plus grande épave du Ve s. av. J.-C. connue à ce jour a été découverte récemment au large de l'île d'Alonnissos, dans les Sporades du Nord. Le navire, chargé d'une cargaison de vin, sombra durant le dernier quart du Ve s. av. J.-C. par 30 m de profondeur. Il était chargé d'amphores vinaires de la ville de Mendè, sur la côte de Macédoine, et de l'île de Skopélos, célèbres toutes deux dans l'Antiquité pour la qualité de leur vin, exporté (...) dans toute la Méditerranée et jusqu'en mer Noire. Le navire transportait aussi une abondante vaisselle de banquet à vernis noir d'origine athénienne. Les navires d'époque classique précédemment découverts en Grèce, à Chypre, en France, en Italie et en Israël ne dépassaient pas 17 m de long et 4 m de large. L'épave d'Alonnissos mesure au moins 25 m de long et 10 m de large : elle constitue le premier témoignage archéologique de l'existence en Méditerranée dès le Ve s. av. J.-C. de bateaux marchands jaugeant plus de 100 tonnes. (shrink)

La vita e le opere di Landolfo Caracciolo O.F.M. sono state descritte in modo sistematico da Salerno.1 Rispetto a questa descrizione, che ha posto il bacellierato sentenziario di Caracciolo intorno al 1320, va assunta la ricostruzione di Schabel, che ha spiegato come Caracciolo abbia letto le Sententiae a Parigi dopo Pietro Aureolo e prima di Francesco d’Ascoli e Francesco di Meyronnes.2 Successivamente Landolfo avrebbe ricevuto la prima cattedra in teologia dello Studium fran-cescano di Napoli, inaugurandovi la tradizione scotista.3Landolfo fu ministro (...) provinciale della Terra di Lavoro e svolse parecchie missioni diplomatiche per conto della regina Giovanna I di Napoli. Nel 1327 fu designato vescovo di.. (shrink)

Like many ethics debates surrounding emerging technologies, neuroethics is increasingly concerned with the private sector. Here, entrepreneurial visions and claims of how neurotechnology innovation will revolutionize society—from brain-computer-interfaces to neural enhancement and cognitive phenotyping—are confronted with public and policy concerns about the risks and ethical challenges related to such innovations. But while neuroethics frameworks have a longer track record in public sector research such as the U.S. BRAIN Initiative, much less is known about how businesses—and especially start-ups—address ethics in tech (...) development. In this paper, we investigate how actors in the field frame and enact ethics as part of their innovative R&D processes and business models. Drawing on an empirical case study on direct-to-consumer (DTC) neurotechnology start-ups, we find that actors engage in careful boundary-work to anticipate and address public critique of their technologies, which allows them to delineate a manageable scope of their ethics integration. In particular, boundaries are drawn around four areas: the technology’s actual capability, purpose, safety and evidence-base. By drawing such lines of demarcation, we suggest that start-ups make their visions of ethical neurotechnology in society more acceptable, plausible and desirable, favoring their innovations while at the same time assigning discrete responsibilities for ethics. These visions establish a link from the present into the future, mobilizing the latter as promissory place where a technology’s benefits will materialize and to which certain ethical issues can be deferred. In turn, the present is constructed as a moment in which ethical engagement could be delegated to permissive regulatory standards and scientific authority. Our empirical tracing of the construction of ‘ethical realities’ in and by start-ups offers new inroads for ethics research and governance in tech industries beyond neurotechnology. (shrink)

Løgstrups hovedværk fra 1956 med nyt efterskrift ved Hans Fink. “Så vist som et menneske med den tillid, det viser eller begærer, giver mer eller mindre af sit liv i den andens hånd, så vist hører fordringen om at tage vare på det liv med til vor tilværelse sådan som den nu engang er. Hvor meget eller hvor lidt der står på spil for et menneske i den tillid, det viser, er selvsagt uhyre forskelligt. Det beror på mange forskellige faktorer, (...) på den enkeltes psykiske konstitution og øjeblikkelige befindende, på situationen, der ikke mindst er bestemt af, hvem og hvordan den anden er. Men hvorom alting er, betyder det, at der i et hvilket som helst møde mellem mennesker ligger en uudtalt fordring, uanset under hvilke omstændigheder mødet finder sted og hvilken karakter det har.” "Klassiker. Hvis man tror, at Løgstrups etiske fordring er et pladderhumanistisk budskab om næstekærlighed og at »tage vare på hinanden«, så er genudgivelsen en passende lejlighed til at få den læst. (...) Løgstrups fænomenologiske analyser af forholdet mellem mennesker og af vore selvbedrageriske bortforklaringer af vore egne reaktioner på andre er stadig dugfriske, som var de skrevet i går." Niels Højlund, Weekendavisen. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Oppression1Françoise Lionnet (bio)In her disquietingly incandescent poetic novella, La vie de Josephin le fou, completed with the energy of urgency in just two weeks in November 2002,2 Mauritian author Ananda Devi explores Joséphin's relationship with the protective aquatic environment that becomes his refuge from domestic abuse and maternal rejection:J'ai pris l'habitude d'aller dans la mer chaque fois que le monde d'en haut criait trop fort. La mer m'a accueilli (...) chaque fois sans poser de questions, elle avait pas de voix, la mer, que des sons transparents et mouillés, des sons qui vous bercent et vous endorment et vous cicatrisent et vous guérissent….(20)Going into the ocean became a habit every time the world up above would scream too loud. The ocean welcomed me every time, without asking any questions--the ocean had no voice, only sounds, transparent and soaked, sounds that could rock you to sleep and heal your wounds…..(27)The French-language narrative plays with the homonyms mer (sea/ocean) and mère (mother) to underline the nurturing maternal qualities of the deep, which it contrasts with the behavior of the abused and abusive human mother. Caught in a vortex of violence on land where he must always hold his breath and his tongue, Joséphin has developed the ability to survive without much air. This learned ability to restrict his breathing has prepared him for life under water:J'avais pas besoin de respirer. J'avais tellement retenu ma respiration depuis bébé pour pas la mettre en colère… que c'était facile de le faire de nouveau pour rester longtemps longtemps sous l'eau. Vivre là, en captant quelques bulles d'air échappées des coquilles.(22)I didn't need to breathe. I had held my breath for so long as a baby to not make her mad…. that it was easy to do it again, to stay a long long time under water, to live there, off of a few air bubbles escaped from sea shells.(28)In a story that takes on the generic characteristics of the fantastic, Devi thematizes the relationship between social or familial oppression and the physiological constriction of lungs due to oxygen deficiency. Joséphin's (self-)denial of air speaks to us today, eloquently, of an urgent issue that became prominent in the past two years: choking as a form of torture inflicted upon victims of police brutality. The oft repeated slogan, "I can't breathe," militant words of the international Black Lives Matter movement, [End Page 169] have become a rallying cry against oppression. "I can't breathe" is recognizable everywhere as a sign of outrage against gratuitous human cruelty, and in 2020, George Floyd became its most famous contemporary symbol, after Eric Garner's death in a choke hold first drew attention to the issue. Journalist Lonnae O'Neal has discussed Floyd's fate, his tragic last moments, his call to his absent, deceased mother. O'Neal dwells on the words he uttered as he lay in the street: "Momma! Momma! I am through." In her elegy to black motherhood, O'Neal asserts that a dying man's call to his mother "is a prayer to be seen," "a sacred invocation" that expresses the poignant hope that memory and justice will prevail. She invokes Floyd's need to be recognized as a human being, to testify to his humanity with his last breaths, and thus to be remembered as having mattered. Her lyrical prose contains direct echoes of Martinican poet Aimé Césaire's poem "Le cri" in which the narrator forces recognition of his humanity by leaving traces of his "souffle," his breath, in the invisible presence-absence of air:Le vent novice de la mémoire des méandress'offenseÀ vif que par mon soufflede mon souffle il suffisepour à tous signifierprésents et avenirqu'un homme était làet qu'il a crié[…]The wind, inexpert at remembering meandersis stungto the quick that my breathmy breath alone sufficesto signify to allnow and foreverthat a man was... (shrink)

In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant explains the purpose of the transcendental deduction of the categories by referring to the practice of legal deduction (KrV, A 84/B 116). However, he does not elaborate the details of the analogy and the reader is left to fill in the blanks concerning legal deductions and their supposed similarities with transcendental deductions. In this paper, I suggest we use judicial imputation to clarify Kant’s analogy between transcendental and legal deductions. My claim is that (...) the core of the analogy is not the similarities between the acquisition of property and that of concepts but rather similarities in the application of a law to a deed. (shrink)

Книга предназначена для студентов, преподавателей и научных сотрудников высших учебных заведений, занимающихся вопросами истории мировой культуры.

Every price is set by someone; this is where economics begins. Building on that fundamental idea and on Ayn Rand's philosophy of Objectivism, Objective Economics transforms economics. The thesis of this book is that Ayn Rand's concept of "objective" is the indispensible base of valid economic thought. Consistently applying this idea across the board, the author reaches a general theory of price for the first time in the history of economic thought. This theory of price then provides a valid base (...) for explaining how a free economy functions. Based on facts everyone knows, presented without graphs or higher mathematics, Objective Economics makes accessible to the intelligent layman a clear understanding of how the economy works. For everyone who found college economics impenetrable--and that is just about everyone--this is the book.The thesis of Objective Economics changes everything about economics, including economics' method, the conception of the economy, the meaning of competition, the idea of price, the nature of business costs, the concept of supply, the concept of demand, the law of supply and demand, the theory of price, and the theory of total national output. Overall, as the result of all the preceding, Objective Economics demonstrates that capitalism is the practical economic system. (shrink)

La Thyréatide, entre l'Argolide et la Laconie, à l'Est de la Tégéatide est un territoire convoité par tous ses voisins. La description de Pausanias est sans doute mutilée, rendant ainsi pendant longtemps la topographie de la région incompréhensible. Les découvertes archéologiques permettent cependant peu à peu d'en connaître l'occupation et de commencer à cerner les problèmes historiques. Il semble que l'on doive placer Anthana au Nord du Tanos et Eua à Hélleniko, à 600 m au-dessus de la plaine. Le troisième (...) site fortifié, au Sud de la plaine et au bord de la mer, serait alors la Méthana du Pseudo-Skylax, dont la mention aurait disparu du texte de Pausanias en même temps que celle de Thyréa. On suit encore mal l'histoire de la région au vie s. et au début du ve s. av. J.-G. Fortifiée durant la guerre du Péloponnèse, la région est donnée à Argos par Philippe de Macédoine. Renforcée à cette date, la cité d'Eua semble cependant connaître encore des jours mouvementés au ine et au 11e s. av. J.-G. malgré le silence des textes. Les tombes de l'époque romaine nous indiquent qu'elle était encore habitée au temps de Pausanias. (shrink)

Evolution of cities is a subject of research for over a hundred years in the organization of urban knowledge systems. Locating five key methodological approaches used by urban scholars and practitioners, this paper demonstrates different relationships between urban studies and classification. Five significant themes form the background of urban studies literature. The first theme sources and literature explore organizing urban materials into sources and literature with a unique dimension of spatiality. The second theme discusses three important facets: scale as a (...) geographic unit of analysis and space as an abstract entity and system as a set of interdependent parts of urban places. The third theme, known as “other” urban, argued for the poor treatment of global south and how it builds inclusivity. The fourth theme, classification and retrieval, investigates the relationship between urban materials and user needs. The last theme, classification schemes, highlights subject treatment of urban in the existing library classification schemes. This paper concludes that the five themes discussed point to a model of urban studies classification. However, this model is not just concerned with urban methods, facets and formats, but explores how each theme interconnects with various sets of people-urbanists, practitioners and librarians-and through studying these actors, established boundaries of urban theories, urban librarianship and knowledge organization are crossed. (shrink)

Издание содержит: Философия в контексте; Наука в контексте культуры; Человек и его время; Документы и библиография.

As state-of-art technology can create artificial images that are indistinguishable from real ones, it is urgent to understand whether believing that a picture is real or not has some import over affective phenomena such as sexual arousal. Thus, in two pre-registered online studies, we tested whether 60 images depicting models in underwear elicited higher self-reported sexual arousal when believed to be (N = 57) or presented as (N = 108) real photographs as opposed to artificially generated. In both cases, Realness (...) correlated with significantly higher scores on self-reported sexual arousal. Consistently with the literature on downregulation of emotional response to fictional works, our result indicates that sexual images that are perceived to be fake are less arousing than those believed to portray real people. (shrink)

Dalam kedua buku ini Jens Zimmermann mengamati bahwa Eropa telah dan sedang mengalami krisis identitas serta krisis kebudayaan. Hal ini disebabkan karena masyarakat Eropa melupakan akar identitas dan kebudayaannya, yaitu humanisme Kristiani. Zimmermann menawarkan suatu jalan keluar dari krisis, yaitu kembali ke akar identitas dan budaya Eropa, yaitu filsafat Kristiani tradisional yang berpusat pada inkarnasi. Hal ini akan menjadi pemecahan bagi berbagai krisis dan per- masalahan yang dihadapi Eropa dewasa ini. “Humanisme inkarnasional” menyatakan bahwa Allah menjadi manusia sehingga manusia dapat (...) mencapai realisasi dari imago Dei atau gambaran Allah. Hal ini menjadi dasar utama kebudayaan Barat. Menurut Zimmerman, pengertian kita tentang persona, yang menyeimbangkan antara diri individual dan diri sosial, keluhuran martabat manusia dan hak-haknya, kebebasan dan tanggung jawabnya, dibangun atas dasar ajaran mengenai inkarnasi. Demikian pula dengan tradisi yang menekankan nilai bahasa, kesusasteraan dan seni untuk pemahaman diri manusia, hubungan iman dan akal budi, serta pentingnya pendidikan watak terbentuk oleh humanisme, khususnya humanisme pada masa Renaissance. Berbeda dari para pakar Renaissance lainnya, yang menafsirkan kebudayaan Renaissance sebagai pintu masuk ke dalam kebudayaan sekular dan masa Pencerahan, Zimmermann berpandangan bahwa Renaissance didahului oleh dan merupakan kelanjutan dari gagasan Bapa-Bapa Gereja Abad Tengah yang menempatkan inkarnasi sebagai pusat dari humanisme. Pendidikan di masa Renaissance merupakan pembentuk kebudayaan Kristiani. Istilah Jerman Bildung mengungkapkan kesatuan antara pendidikan dan kebudayaan. Inilah kunci dari kesinambungan budaya Kristiani. “Tujuan saya ialah menunjukkan kesinambungan tema dalam humanisme dan pendidikan watak di mana estetika dan bahasa memainkan peran penting. Saya telah menunjukkan bahwa humanisme Renaissance terutama merupakan humanisme Kristiani, yang sangat tergantung pada pemikir Patristik, Kekristenan Platonik” (I, hlm. 159). Zimmermann tidak membahas bahwa dalam masa Pencerahan telah terjadi suatu “keterputusan” dengan tradisi Kristiani sebelumnya................... Jens Zimmermann telah berhasil merunut perkembangan huma- nisme Kristiani dan menjelaskan bagaimana identitas masyarakat Eropa serta kebudayaannya berakar pada humanisme Kristiani. Maka apabila masyarakat Eropa akan mengatasi krisis identitasnya dan kebudayaannya mereka harus kembali kepada akar-akarnya tersebut, yaitu humanisme Kristiani. Humanisme itu didasarkan pada inkarnasi Allah. Pandangan Zimmermann bergerak dalam kawasan abu-abu, antara teologi dan filsafat. Satu aspek yang dilalaikan oleh Zimmerman ialah pembahasan mengenai terjadinya berbagai tragedi kemanusiaan di Eropa, seperti holocaustum dan imperialisme. Zimmermann hanya menyebut sepintas mengenai Hitler. Peristiwa-peristiwa tragedi itu merupa- kan disrupsi dalam sejarah Eropa, yang memutus kesinambungan akar- akar Kristiani. Pembangunan identitas membutuhkan kesinambungan historis serta reinterpretasi terus-menerus. Apakah relevan untuk me- ngatasi krisis jaman sekarang dengan menghidupkan kembali akar-akar humanisme Kristiani tanpa menafsirkannya kembali dalam konteks ma- syarakat Eropa yang semakin menjadi plural? Pandangan Zimmermann mirip dengan pandangan Paus Benediktus XVI, yang mengingatkan kem-bali akar Kristiani budaya Eropa. (M. Sastrapratedja, Program Pasca- sarjana, sekolah Tinggi Filsafat Driyarkara, Jakarta). (shrink)